Mathematics

Mathematics is one of the best creations of human mind concerned chiefly with ideas, processes and reasoning. Mathematics is an integral part of all other forms of science such as Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Medicine and Engineering. All these Sciences progress only with the aid of Mathematics. Mathematics is necessary tool being employed by all other forms of Science. It would be wrong to consider Mathematics as a sum total of Trigonometry, Algebra, Statistics, Geometry, Arithmetic and Calculus. Mathematics is a way of thinking. It is a way of organizing a logical proof. Mathematics is not about answers, it's about processes. For more than two thousand years, mathematics has been a part of the human search for understanding. Mathematics discoveries are the result of the attempt to describe the natural world and from the desire to arrive at a form of inescapable truth from careful reasoning. It is said that Mathematics is the gate and key of the Science. According to the famous Philosopher Kant, "A Science is exact only in so far as it employs Mathematics". Since the last century, application of mathematics has been spreader over many areas like voting trends in politics, the dating of ancient artifacts, the analysis of automobile traffic patterns, and long-term strategies for the sustainable harvest of deciduous forests. Today mathematics is considered as a condition to call someone as a liberally educated person. It is said that all scientific education which does not commence with Mathematics is said to be defective at its foundation. Neglect of mathematics works injury to all knowledge. 

Origin/History

Steven Schwartzman in his book The Words of Mathematics wrote that Latin mathematica was a plural noun, which is why mathematics has an -s at the end even though we use it as a singular noun. Latin had taken the word from Greek mathematikos, which in turn was based on mathesis. That word, which was also borrowed into English but is now archaic, meant "mental discipline" or "learning," especially mathematical learning. The Indo-European root is mendh- "to learn." In Latin, and in English until around 1700, the term mathematics more commonly meant "astrology" (or sometimes "astronomy") rather than "mathematics"; the meaning gradually changed to its present one from about 1500 to 1800. This has resulted in several mistranslations: a particularly notorious one is Saint Augustine's warning that Christians should beware of mathematici meaning astrologers, which is sometimes mistranslated as a condemnation of mathematicians.

The roots of elemetary mathamatics is found in most of the Ancient civilizations. Greece, the Roman empire, Vedic society and ancient Egypt are some of them. However, The first mathematics textbooks to be written in English and French were published by Robert Recorde, beginning with The Grounde of Artes in 1540. University of Aberdeen created the first chair of mathematics in 1613 followed by the Chair in Geometry being set up in University of Oxford in 1619. University of Cambridge in 1662 established the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics  . 

Trading, land measurement, painting and weaving patterns and the recording of time are some of the areas for which mathematics was used. The Babylonians and Egyptians began using complex mathematics like arithmetic, algebra and geometry for taxation and other financial calculations, for building and construction, and for astronomy around 3000 BC. The systematic study of mathematics in its own right began with the Ancient Greeks between 600 and 300 BC.

The earliest records of counting came from physical evidence. The oldest mathematical artifact was discovered in the mountains between South Africa and Swaziland. It is a piece of baboon fibula with 29 notches, dated 35,000 CB. Old Stone Age people had devised a system of tallying by groups as early as 30,000 BCE. The oldest record of primes is possibly the Ishango bone. Currently at the Musee d.Histoire Naturelle in Brussels has been dated about 6500 CB. Having three rows of notches, and one of the columns has 11, 13, 17, and 19 notches; It is believed that these notches formed a primitive calendar system.

Definitions

Mathematics has been defined in various ways since the primitive era. Some of the well-known definitions of Mathematics is mentioned below.

  “The abstract science which investigates deductively the conclusions implicit in the elementary conceptions of spatial and numerical relations, and which includes as its main divisions geometry, arithmetic, and algebra”. Oxford English Dictionary

  “Mathematics is not a book confined within a cover and bound between brazen clasps, whose contents it needs only patience to ransack; it is not a mine, whose treasures may take long to reduce into possession, but which fill only a limited number of veins and lodes; it is not a soil, whose fertility can be exhausted by the yield of successive harvests; it is not a continent or an ocean, whose area can be mapped out and its contour defined: it is limitless as that space which it finds too narrow for its aspirations; its possibilities are as infinite as the worlds which are forever crowding in and multiplying upon the astronomer's gaze; it is as incapable of being restricted within assigned boundaries or being reduced to definitions of permanent validity, as the consciousness of life, which seems to slumber in each monad, in every atom of matter, in each leaf and bud cell, and is forever ready to burst forth into new forms of vegetable and animal existence.”- James Joseph Sylvester

  “Mathematics is the science that draws necessary conclusions.” - Benjamin Peirce

  “A mathematician, like a painter or poet, is a maker of patterns. If his patterns are more permanent than theirs, it is because they are made with ideas" -. G. H. Hardy

  “All Mathematics is Symbolic Logic.” -Bertrand Russell

Fields /Areas

The subject matter of mathematics is wide and it can broadly be divided in to the study of Quantity, Structure, Space and Change. Mathematics is also classified as in to Pure Mathematics and Applied Mathematics

What is Pure Mathematics?

Pure Mathematics is the branches of mathematics that study and develop the principles of mathematics for their own sake rather than for their immediate usefulness. Following are the major fields of mathematics.  Pure mathematics explores the boundary of mathematics and pure reason. It has been described as "that part of mathematical activity that is done without explicit or immediate consideration of direct application," although what is "pure" in one era often becomes applied later. 

What is Applied Mathematics?

Applied mathematics is more practical in its applicability. It is closely associated with with mathematical methods that are typically used in science, engineering, business, and industry. Applied mathematics is often called as knowledge specific mathematics. As a profession applied mathematics focuses on the "formulation, study, and use of mathematical models" in science, engineering, and other areas of mathematical practice. In the past, practical applications have motivated the development of mathematical theories, which then became the subject of study in pure mathematics, where mathematics is developed primarily for its own sake. Thus, the activity of applied mathematics is vitally connected with research in pure mathematics.

Quantity: Numbers are the starting point to study quantity. Both natural numbers and integers with arithmetical interpretation is the core area of mathematical study of quantity. Theories like Fermat's Last Theorem, The twin prime conjecture Goldbach's conjecture are the outcome of deeper study of quantity. It is worth mentioning here that the study of size is closely associated with mathematical study of quantity.

Structure: In mathematics, a structure on a set, or more generally a type, consists of additional mathematical objects that in some manner attach (or relate) to the set, making it easier to visualize or work with, or endowing the collection with meaning or significance. Mathematics studies properties of those studies properties of those sets that can be expressed in terms of that structure.(wiki)

Space Euclidean geometry in particular and geometry is general is the key focus area of study of space in mathematics. Quantity and space both are crucial in analytic geometry, differential geometry, and algebraic geometry. The study of space today generalizes the ideas related to space and numbers in Trigonometry that encompasses the well-known Pythagorean theorem.

Change Calculus was primary developed as a powerful tool to investigate understands and describe changes in the natural sciences. Functions play a vital role here as it is a primary concept here to describe a changing quantity. Functional analysis pays close attention on spaces of functions. Quantum mechanics is one of many applications of functional analysis.

Importance of Mathematics

Galileo: "The great book of nature can be read only by those who know the language in which it was written. And that language is mathematics."

Mathematics is the way to understand all sorts of things in the world around us. Mathematics is considered as the gate and key of the Science. As noted by Kant, "A natural Science is a Science in so far as it is mathematical".  Mathematics is interesting and challenging. It is always exciting to find a solution for a problem. Mathematics brings this excitement and sharpness in thought process making a useful real life experience. And Mathematics has played a very important role in building up modern Civilization by perfecting all Science. The utility of modern day mathematics can be understood with the help of following points:

• The mathematics of error-correcting codes is applied to CD players and to computers.

• Whenever it is said that advances are made with supercomputers, there has to be a mathematical theory which instructs the computer what is to be done, so allowing it to apply its capacity for speed and accuracy.

• The development of computers was initiated in this country by mathematicians and logicians, who continue to make important contributions to the theory of computer science.

• The next generation of software requires the latest methods from what is called category theory, a theory of mathematical structures which has given new perspectives on the foundations of mathematics and on logic.

• The physical sciences (chemistry, physics, oceanography, astronomy) require mathematics for the development of their theories.

• In ecology, mathematics is used when studying the laws of population change. 

• Statistics provides the theory and methodology for the analysis of wide varieties of data.  Statistics is also essential in medicine, for analyzing data on the causes of illness and on the utility of new drugs. 

• Travel by aero plane would not be possible without the mathematics of airflow and of control systems. 

• Body scanners are the expression of subtle mathematics, discovered in the 19th century, which makes it possible to construct an image of the inside of an object from information on a number of single X-ray views of it. Thus mathematics is often involved in matters of life and death.

• Voyager's journey to the planets could not have been calculated without the mathematics of differential equations.

Mathematics as a Career

Mathematics prepares you for careers in many fields. Every successful student in mathematics is fortunate enough to have a wide range of career choices. Mathematics develops multiple skills in a person. To name them:

a) Ability to think logically

b) Problem solving skills

c) Ability assume practically about something

d) Promptness etc.

Career opportunities are available for a mathematics graduate or a post graduate across all the employment sectors.  As per a survey in 2009 it is revealed that the top three best jobs in terms of income and other factors were careers suited for math majors. Another recent survey shows that the top 15 highest-earning college degrees have a common element: mathematics.  Following is a list of jobs associated with mathematics with a brief description of the job role:

• Actuary-- assemble and analyze statistics to calculate probabilities of death, sickness, injury, disability, unemployment, retirement, and property loss; design insurance and pension plans and ensure that they are maintained on a sound financial basis.

• Mathematics teacher-- introduce students to the power and beauty of mathematics in elementary, junior high, or high school mathematics courses.

• Operations Research Analyst-- assist organizations (manufacturers, airlines, military) in developing the most efficient, cost-effective solutions to organizational operations and problems; this includes strategy, forecasting, resource allocation, facilities layout, inventory control, personnel schedules, and distribution systems.

• Statistician-- collect, analyze, and present numerical data resulting from surveys and experiments.

• Physician-- diagnose patient illnesses, prescribe medication, teach classes, mentor interns, and do clinical research; students with a good mathematics background will find themselves being admitted to the best medical schools and discover that mathematics has prepared them well for the discipline, analysis, and problem- solving required in the field of medicine.

• Research scientist-- model atmospheric conditions to gain insight into the effect of changing emissions from cars, trucks, power plants, and factories; apply these models in the development of alternative fuels.

• Computer scientist-- interface the technology of computers with the underlying mathematical principles of such diverse applications as medical diagnoses, graphics animation, interior design, cryptogrraphy, and parallel computers.

• Inventory Strategist-- analyze historical sales data, model forecast uncertainty to design contingency plans, and analyze catalog displays to make them more successful; analyze consumer responses.

• Staff systems air traffic control analyst-- apply probability, statistics, and logistsics to air traffic control operations; use simulated aircraft flight to monitor air traffic control computer systems.

• Cryptologist-- design and analyze schemes used to transmit secret information.

• Attorney-- research, comprehend, and apply local, state, and federal laws; a good background in mathematics will help a student get admitted to law school and assist in the understanding of complicated theoretical legal concepts.

• Economist-- interpret and analyze the interrelationships among factors which drive the economics of a particular organization, industry, or country.

• Mathematics professor-- teach mathematics classes, do theoretical research, and advise undergraduate and graduate students at colleges and universities.

• Environmental Mathematician-- work as member of interdisciplinary team of scientists and professionals studying problems at specific Superfund sites; communicate effectively across many academic discilplines and be able to summarize work in writing.

• Robotics Engineer-- combine mathematics, engineering, and computer science in the study and design of robots.

• Geophysical Mathematician -- develop the mathematical basis for seismic imaging tools used in the exploration and production of oil and gas reservoirs.

• Design -- use computer graphics and mathematical modeling in the design and construction of physical prototypes; integrate geometric design with cost-effective manufacturing of resulting products.

• Ecologist -- study the interrelationships of organisms and their environments and the underlying mathematical dynamics.

• Geodesist -- study applied science involving the precise measurement of the size and shape of the earth and its gravity field (courtesy of Bruce Hedquist).

• Photogrammetrist -- study the applied science of multi-spectral image acquisition from terrestrial, aerial and satellite camera platforms, followed up by the image processing, analysis, storage, display, and distribution in various hard-copy and digital format (courtesy of Bruce Hedquist).

• Civil Engineer -- plan, design, and manage the construction of land vehicle, aircraft, water, and energy transport systems; analyze and control systems for land vehicular traffic; analyze and control environmental systems for sewage and water treatment; develop sites for industrial, commercial and residential home use; analyze and control systems for storm water drainage and storage; manage construction of foundations, structures and buildings; analyze construction materials ; and surface soils and subterranean material analysis (courtesy of Bruce Hedquist).

• Geomatics Engineer -- once known as "surveying engineer", includes geodetic surveying : takes into account the size and shape of the earth, in order to determine the precise horizontal and vertical positions of geodetic reference monuments; cadastral surveying.

Mass Communication

In simple words, Mass communication can be understood as a communication sent from a person or a group through a transmission device to a large audience. In other words mass communication is a public communication transmitted electronically or mechanically. The message, the medium and the audience are the three basic units of analysis for mass communication.  Mass communication studies teach people how to evaluate the media. Students learn the history and cultural effects on society of newspapers, television, and other media. They study critical thinking and learn to think in visual terms. With the increased role of the Internet in delivering news and information, mass communication studies and media organizations tend to focus on the convergence of publishing, broadcasting and digital communication.

History

Mass communication on a global scale is a cultural phenomenon with a relatively brief history. However it would not be wrong to say that the invention of writing provided a revolutionary start to the social communication system. The history of Mass communication can be summarized with the following chronological events.   

As mentioned above invention of writing was a revolution of social communication system. Writing brought people closer in a short while with effective communication. This minimized the previous problems in communication caused by time and distance. System of writing helped the society to a great extent in spreading knowledge. It eventually helped in building an efficient administrative system with adequate social, cultural and economic inputs.

The second major communication revolution was the invention of mass writing. This was brought first by the movable type printing press. This assured the involvement of large number of people in the communication system. The invention of printing pressed marked the way of transition of time from the medieval to modern era opening a door of for growth and development in the education and other related areas.

Invention of Telegraph was the beginning of a new era in global communication system. It led to revolutionary changes in the communication system during 1830s. Prior to this the common modes of communications were books, speech, messengers. The telegraph made possible two-way communication at the speed of light (186,000 miles per second) in real time. It also made possible communication that was not bound by distance, quickly spreading across continents and oceans. The telephone enhanced this technology, and both inventions brought not only new communication opportunities but also new ways of thinking about the interconnectedness of families and communities, cultures and nations.

Compared to the other modes of communication the inventions in the fourth communication revolution were quite advanced. Effective Mass communication devices like radio, photography, film and television and sound recordings are some of the well-known modes invented during this phase. These tools contributed to a great extent in fast positive social transformation in many vital areas like education and entertainment.

The most recent phase of communication development involves a number of hi-tech communication tools like computer and communication satellite, wireless technology, fiber optics, digitization, miniaturization, data compression and interactivity. These tools are instrumental in making the world what we call today as 'Global Village'.  

Below is the list of some of the historical mass communication inventions.

•   Invention of Telegraph by Samuel F. B. Morse in 1835,
•   Invention of Telephone Alexander Graham Bell in 1876
•   Invention of Radio by Marconi in 1901
•   Invention of Television by Baird in 1920

Different forms of Mass Media

Mass media refers to communication devices, which can be used to communicate and interact with a large number of audiences in different languages. Some of the major forms of mass media are:

Radio: A radio is a receiver that is electronic and receives and detects transmitted signals. You can use a radio to listen to music or talk shows, or you can use a radio to transmit calls for help.

Television: Television is a widely used telecommunication system for broadcasting and receiving moving pictures and sound over a distance. The term may also be used to refer specifically to a television set, programming or television transmission. 

Print Media:  It is a medium that that disseminates printed matter. Print medium involves all the newspapers, magazines, leaflets etc. A basic understanding of the print media is essential in the study of mass communication. The contribution of print media in providing information and transfer of knowledge is remarkable. Even after the advent of electronic media, the print media has not lost its charm or relevance.

New Media: Development and widespread use of computers and information technology have resulted in the emergence of what is called ‘new media’. It includes computers, information technology, communication networks and digital media. This has led to another process in mass communication called ‘convergence’. Convergence means coming together of many forms of media and other formats like printed text, photographs, films, recorded music or radio, television etc. Though it is hard to separate old media from new media the World Wide Web or internet has changed the way in which we communicate. You will learn more about this later.

Wireless communication: Wireless communication is the transfer of information over a distance without the use of electrical conductors or wires. The distances involved may be short (a few meters as in television remote control) or very long (thousands or even millions of kilometers for radio communications). When the context is clear the term is often simply shortened to wireless. Wireless communications is generally considered to be a branch of telecommunications.

Photography: As defined in wiki Photography is the art, science and practice of creating durable images by recording light or other electromagnetic radiation, either chemically by means of a light-sensitive material such as photographic film, or electronically by means of an image sensor. Photographs are indispensible part of visual media and strongest mode of expression.

Films: A film, also called a movie or motion picture, is a series of still images on a strip of plastic which, when run through a projector and shown on a screen, creates the illusion of moving images. A film is a series of still photographs on films were projected in rapid succession onto a screen.

Below is a  classified list of different form of Mass Media:

Print Media

• Newspapers
• Magazines
• Booklets and Brochures
• House magazines, periodicals or newsletters
• Direct Mailers
• Handbills or Flyers
• Billboards
• Press Releases
• Books

 Electronic Media

• Television
• Radio

New Age Media

• Mobile Phones
• Computers
• Internet 

Features of Mass Communication

• As explained mass communication is the transmission of complex messages to large and diverse audiences, using sophisticated technology of communication. This system of transmission has certain distinct characteristics. 
• The source of mass communication message generally is a person or group operating within an organizational setting.
• Mass media messages are sophisticated and complex. Whereas the message in interpersonal communication may be simple words and short sentences, mass media messages are quite elaborate. 
• Channels of mass media, also called mass vehicles, involve one or more aspects of technology. 
• Audiences generally are self-selected; people who tune in to a particular television or who read a particular magazine. Mass audiences also are heterogeneous, meaning that they are both large and diverse. They actually are made up of groups of people with dissimilar background, demographics, and socio-political characteristics; they are spread over a vast geographic area.
• Such audiences are brought together by a single shared interest in the particular message available through the mass medium. 
• Feedback is minimal in mass media, and no real give-and-take is practically possible.
• Like other forms of mediated communication, noise exists in the mass context. Noise may be semantic, environmental or mechanical.

Role of Mass Media

The impact of mass communication in modern day society is easily understandable. It performs multiple roles in terms of bringing positive social transformation. However, the major roles of mass communication can be classified in to four basic categories.    

•   Surveillance,
•   Interpretation, 
•   Socialization
•   Entertainment.

Surveillance: Surveillance refers to the news and information role of mass media. This role can be subdivided into warning surveillance associated with the news media (information about pending threats such as floods, military attack, and depressed economic conditions) and instrumental surveillance associated with both news and popular media (transmission of useful information about news products, entertainment guides, stock market prices, etc.)

Interpretation: Interpretation is the function of mass media that provides a context for new information and commentary about its significance and meaning. Traditionally, newspapers provided such interpretation in their editorial and commentary sections, reserving news pages for supposedly neutral information. Reporting was said to be objective; that is, free from comment and interpretation. 

Socialization: The media also have a role in socialization, the transmission of values within a society, particularly the modeling of appropriate behavior and attitudes. The notion is that the mass media present images of society, which viewers then can learn and adopt for themselves. This in turn helps create a stable society with common social values

Entertainment: Entertainment is a related function of mass media, sometimes called the diversion function because it diverts us from the real world. Entertainment always has been part of society, increasingly so in an age in which more people have a greater amount of leisure time. Through sound recordings, film, radio and television, entertainers have been able to attract audiences around the globe. 

Mass Media Classifications

Mass Communication scholars have attempted to classify the subject from different angles focusing on different aspect of media. This classification is eventually helping us in understanding the wider scope and nature of the mass communication. Explanations of some of the main classifications are mentioned below:

Herbert Marshall McLuhan, a Canadian educator, philosopher, and scholar—developed the concept of Hot and Cold media. 

Hot media:  A hot medium is a medium that extends one single sense in high definition. Hot media do not leave very much to be filled in by the audience. Hot media are low in audience participation since the audience does not have to work very hard to understand what is being said.

Cool media:  Cool media allow audiences to be passive spectators because others have made the creative decisions. Cool media are usually, but not always, associated with the sense of hearing. They require more active participation on the part of the user, including the perception of abstract patterning and simultaneous comprehension of all parts. Cool media, according to McLuhan, therefore include television, as well as the seminar and cartoons.

Mass Media is also divided in to elastic and populist media.

Elitist media:  Elitist media are those that serve to uplift society and contribute to culture. Examples are serious-minded magazines, television programs focusing on art or history, recordings of classical music or contemporary jazz.  

Populist media: Populist media are those that satisfy the baser expectations of the marketplace. Sensationalistic tabloid newspapers, reality television shows and music videos are examples of this. Pornography is the ultimate example of populist media.

Career in Mass Communication

Development in communication technology and media has brought a phenomenal and unprecedented explosion in all boundaries. The entire global community seems to have been brought together into one unified whole. And it is here that mass-communication, as a stream of study, and as a career, becomes so important and enviable. Mass communication is attracting a lot of young these days as it is offering a number of interesting career options in the fields like - newspapers, magazines, radio, television, advertisements, public relations etc.  Mass communication as an exciting career option is gaining fast popularity among the youths. The career prospects in mass communication are very bright, offering a myriad of opportunities to explore. Since it is fast developing as a comprehensive field, one can find lucrative job opportunities in public relations, newspaper, radio, television, publishing houses, advertising agencies, government organizations and many other sectors. A mass communication graduate can work in any of the following areas.

•   News Journalist
•   Audio engineer 
•   Communications specialist 
•   Community relations director 
•   Concert tour manager 
•   Master control operator 
•   Media planner 
•   Media relations specialist 
•   Media buyer 
•   News reporter/anchor 
•   Promotions manager 
•   Political strategist
•   Radio personality
•   Photo Journalist 
•   Speech writer 
•   Screenplay Writer
•   Studio manager 
•   Talent agent 
•   Film Editor
•   Public Relation Executive
•   Technical director 
•   TV director or producer

International Relations (IR)

International relations bear an exceptionally important significance in modern day world. Things have changed to a great extent today with the development of science and technology. The change is impacting each and every nation of the world to a great extent. The improved communication techniques and methods are bringing all the countries close to each other. However, things were not the same before. The essence of international relations was not felt till the world wars. Especially, after the Second World War the importance of peaceful and cooperative relationships between nations was felt globally. An attempt was made through League of Nations for global harmony after the first world war however it failed to restore peace the way it was expected and the second great was broke out in 1914. However, at the end of cold war, United Nations was founded. This marked the beginning of a new era in international peace perspective.

In simple words international relations mean the relationship between two countries. It includes the roles of states, inter-governmental organizations (IGOs), international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and multinational corporations (MNCs). It is both an academic and public policy field. It is the study of the relations of states with each other and with international organizations and certain subnational entities. It is an inter-disciplinary subject and related to a number of other academic disciplines like political science, geography, history, economics, law, sociology, psychology, and philosophy.

Humans have been fascinated and frustrated by war and its consequences for over 2000 years of recorded history. So its continuing preeminence should not be a surprising factor for us. At the beginning of the 21st century, research focused on issues such as terrorism, religious and ethnic conflict, the emergence of sub-state and non-state entities, the spread of weapons of mass destruction and efforts to counter nuclear proliferation, and the development of international institutions.

Origin

The practice of international relations in human society is probably quite old. Since thousands of years from now humans have been establishing governments and communicating with each other. Barry Buzan and Richard Little, for example, consider the interaction of ancient Sumerian city-states, starting in 3,500 BC, as the first fully-fledged international system. However, many people agree that international relations truly began to emerge around the 15th century, when people started exploring the world and interacting with other governments and cultures.  The concept of Sovereignty of a state is directly related to the practice of international relations Peace of Westphalia of 1648 is said to be the striking force for the development of modern concept of international systems based on sovereign states. The concept of sovereignty and of a sovereign state gained overwhelms response from common people during the French revolution. The idea that not princes or an oligarchy, but the citizenry of a state, defined as the nation, should be defined as sovereign, started a new era from the international perspective. Multinational Corporations or Organizations of past were also instrumental in understanding and developing the concept of international relations. For example Multinational Corporations like the Dutch East India Company were considered among the first multinational corporations while representatives of various European governments met with foreign governments to establish trade agreements and to discuss issues of mutual concern. In the academic world, the study of international relations encompasses the history of this immensely varied field, along with studies of modern foreign relations. However, most theorization of the concepts of international relation took place only after the disastrous results of second word war.

  

Inter Relation as a discipline

           

Initially, international relations as a distinct field of study was almost entirely British-centered. IR only emerged as a formal academic ‘discipline’ in 1918 with the founding of the first ‘chair’ (professorship) in IR - the Woodrow Wilson Chair at Aberystwyth, University of Wales (now Aberystwyth University[4]), from an endowment given by David Davies, became the first academic position dedicated to IR. This was rapidly followed by establishment of IR at US universities and Geneva, Switzerland. In the early 1920s, the London School of Economics' department of International Relations was founded at the behest of Nobel Peace Prize winner Philip Noel-Baker, and was the first institute to offer a wide range of degrees in the field. Furthermore, the International History department at LSE, developed as primarily focused on the history of IR in the early modern, colonial and Cold War periods. The first university entirely dedicated to the study of IR was the Graduate Institute of International Studies (now the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies), which was founded in 1927 to form diplomats associated to the League of Nations, established in Geneva some years before. The Graduate Institute of International Studies offered one of the first Ph.D. degrees in international relations. Georgetown University's Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service is the oldest international relations faculty in the United States, founded in 1919. The Committee on International Relations at the University of Chicago was the first to offer a graduate degree, in 1928. (Wiki)

Subject Matter

International relations as a discipline studies the relationship between two or more states from various perspective. It is an inter-disciplinary subject. International Relations encompasses a wide range of academic fields, ranging from history to environmental studies, and there are a number of areas of specific specialty, for academics who are interested in them.. Attempts to structure and intellectualize it have often been thematically and analytically confined to boundaries determined by data. The core concepts of international relations are:

•       International Organization,
•       Foreign Policy
•       International Law,
•       International Conflict,
•       Globalization,
•       International Economic Relations
•       International/Regional Security,
•       Strategic Studies,
•       International Political Economy,
•       Military Thought and Strategy,
•       Conflict/War and Peace Studies,
•       International Regimes.

Among the other areas, it covers:

•       State sovereignty,
•       Ecological sustainability,
•       Human security
•       Nuclear proliferation,
•       Nationalism,
•       Organized crime,
•       Economic development,
•       Terrorism,
•       Foreign interventionism and human rights.

These areas belong to different schools are though. Realism and Idealism are the major thoughts among them. International Relations as a discipline revolves around one fundamental question- “How can a group-such as two or more nations-serve its collective interests when doing so requires its members to forgo their individual interests?” Individual nations can advance their own short-term interests by seizing territory militarily, cheating on trade agreements, and refusing to contribute to international efforts such as peacekeeping or vaccination campaigns. But if all nations acted this way, they would find themselves worse off, in a chaotic and vicious environment where mutual gains from security and trade would disappear. As an emerging discipline, Philosophy of International Relations can contribute to understanding the main characteristics of contemporary world order, provide useful insights into the nature and sources of cooperation and competition among international actors, and expand the ethical perspective on international relations. A philosophical view can also be helpful in defining the notion of harmony in international relations which has clear connections to such applied category as stability.

Definitions

Some of the major definitions of International Relations is provided below for a better understanding of the subject.

In the words of Karl Wolfgang Deutsch (1968),

      “An introduction to the study of international relations in our time is an introduction to the art and science of the survival of mankind. If civilization is killed in the nearest future, it will not be killed by famine or plague, but by foreign policy and international relations.”

As Stanley Hoffman writes

      “The discipline of international relations is concerned with the factors and the activities which affect the external policies and power of the basic units into which the world is divided.”

Seymon Brown (1988) thus defines international relations as

      "The investigating and study of patterns of action and “reactions among sovereign states as represented by their governing elites.”

According to Ola, Joseph (1999),

      "International relations are the study of all forms of interactions that exist between members of separate entities or nations within the international system".

Trevor Taylor (1979) defines International Relations as

      "A discipline, which tries to explain political activities across state boundaries".

Key Concepts in International Relations

There are certain fundamental concepts associated with the study of International relations. These concepts are helpful in understanding various concepts of international relations.

Power

One of the key concepts of International Relations is Power. Power here means the power of the international nations. Powers determines degree of resources, capabilities, and influence of a state in international affairs.  In a report for the International Organization Foundation, Michael Barnett and Raymond Duvall present four types of international power that include compulsory power, institutional power, structural power and productive power. Compulsory power occurs when one actor directly exerts control over another. Institutional power is indirect power that actors exercise over through diffuse relationships. Structural power derives from the relative structural capacities of international actors. Productive power derives from the extent that society exerts power with diffuse social processes such as discourse and knowledge systems. Power is also divided in to soft Power and hard power. Hard power is relating primarily to coercive power and soft power commonly covering economics, diplomacy and cultural influence.

Polarity

Polarity is concerned with distribution of power within the international system. It is an arrangement of power within the international system. Unipolar world refers to a state with maximum concentration of power such as the Roman Empire prior to 401 B.C. or the United States immediately after the fall of the Soviet Union. Bi-polar world refers to two strongest, dominant players of word with maximum concentration of international power such as the United States and Soviet Union during the Cold War. Multi-polar means the concentration of major international powers in more than four nations of the world. We today live in multi-polar world.

Interdependence

Interdependence is a very crucial concept for International Relations. Interdependence of states today plays a crucial role in international relations. Interdependence is a mutual responsibility and dependency of states concerning areas such as economic, social, military and environmental.

Tools of International Relations

All the nations of the rely on certain tools to balance their relation effectively at a international level. Major tools of international relation are discussed below.

Diplomacy: Diplomacy is the art of forging a relationship without resorting to arguments or conflicts. The goal of diplomacy on an international level is to safeguard the national interests, foster trade and promote the culture and economy between nations. Sanctions, force, and adjusting trade regulations, while not typically considered part of diplomacy, are actually valuable tools in the interest of leverage and placement in negotiations.

Sanctions: The commonly known definition of sanction in international relation is the deliberate, government-inspired withdrawal or threat of withdrawal of customary trade or financial relations. It is normally first resort after the failure of diplomacy, and are one of the main tools used to enforce treaties. The purpose of sanctions can vary but generally can be said to pressurize the target to comply with the sanction’s demands. Diplomatic and economic sanctions are the major sanctions practice in international relations.

 War: A state of armed conflict between different nations or states or different groups within a nation or state. War is considered to be the ultimate tool of international relations. The study of war in International Relations is covered by the disciplines of 'War Studies' and 'Strategic studies'.

Shame: International shame is an effective tool of International Relations. This tool is mostly used to alter states' actions through 'naming and shaming' at the international level.

  

Allotment of Benefits: The allotment of economic and/or diplomatic benefits is also known as a very effective tool in international. This can be best be understood with the help of the example of European Union's enlargement policy. Candidate countries are allowed entry into the EU only after the fulfillment of the Copenhagen criteria.

Career in International Relations

International Relations is a dynamic and a multi-disciplinary and relatively a modern subject. It is a study of global issues creating a literal world of opportunity. In reference to the today’s global scenario a degree in International relations is a cutting edge of open the wide world of opportunities. A career in international relations and diplomacy is the finest career path for those who would like to contribute to the foreign affairs requirements of the country. A career in International Relations can open up new horizons, which were not considered a conventional career choice not very long ago, but are up for grabs now! The main career areas available in the field of International Relations are:

•       Diplomacy
•       International organizations
•       Non-Governmental Organizations
•       Public-private partnerships
•       Multinational companies
•       Educational Sector

A graduate can work as:

•       Foreign Affairs Analyst
•       Foreign Affairs Specialist
•       Foreign Service Officer
•       Immigration Specialist
•       Foreign Policy Expert
•       International Trade expert
•       Intelligence Specialist
•       International Security Expert
•       Journalist
•       Language Specialist
•       Market Research Analyst
•       Political Risk Analyst
•       Journalist
•       Educator
•       Humanitarian Relief Expert
•       Peace Activist
•       Strategist

Human Rights

Every person is entitled to certain fundamental rights, simply by the fact of being human. Human rights are rights inherent to all human beings irrespective of our nationality, place of residence, sex, national or ethnic origin, color, religion, language, or any other status. These rights are legal protection against any people or institution who might want to harm or hurt you. These rights are the condition of peaceful social life. All the people have some basic ideas of human rights. For example we know that we should be paid for the work we do. We should have a place to stay or should have the right to live peacefully. These are our basic rights and form a part of human rights however there are many other rights we should be aware of. Most of the people are not well known about the rights related to abuses, discrimination, intolerance, injustice, oppression and slavery etc. Born out of the atrocities and enormous loss of life during World War II, the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights was signed in 1948 to provide a common understanding of what everyone’s rights are. It forms the basis for a world built on freedom, justice and peace.

History Human Rights

Human right is an age old concept and it has been evolving constantly throughout human civilization. Tablet of Hammurabi is considered to be one of the first examples of codification of laws. Tablet of Hammurabi was created by King Hammurabi about 4000 years ago. Another important event related to human rights in primitive history is found Babylon in 539 B.C when the armies of Cyrus the Great, the first king of ancient Persia, conquered the city of Babylon and later he freed the slaves, and declared that all people had the right to choose their own religion, and established racial equality. This ancient declaration by Cyrus is known as the world’s first charter of human rights. It is translated into all six official languages of the United Nations and its provisions parallel the first four Articles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It didn't take much time for the idea of human rights to spread across the border of India, Greece and Rome.

Human rights evolved greatly in ancient Greece and brought out new dimensions in the form of natural rights or natural law. According to the Greek tradition of Socrates and Plato, natural law is law that reflects the natural order of the universe, essentially the will of the gods who control nature. A classic example of this occurs in Greek literature, when Creon reproaches Antigone for defying his command to not bury her dead brother, and she replies that she acted under the laws of the gods. This idea of natural rights continued in ancient Rome, where the Roman jurist Ulpian believed that natural rights belonged to every person, whether they were a Roman citizen or not. However we must not confuse human rights today with then natural rights.

The next phase of the development of human rights is characterized with the evolution of Positive Law. Thomas Hobbes was associated with the concept of Positive Law and he believed that under positive law can be given, taken away, and modified by a society to suit its needs.  He considered the concept of natural law as inappropriate and inadequate. Another legal positivist Jeremy Bentham also considered the essence of Positive Law. Some of the historical initiative of conceptualizing human rights can be listed as below.

•   Magna Carta (1215),
•   the Petition of Right (1628),
•   the US Constitution (1787)
•   the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789),
•   the US Bill of Rights (1791)

Human rights have not been respected and recognize always in history. The Great War I and II is the greatest example of that. Human rights conditions were worst especially during the world wars. During the period from 1939 to 1945 nearly six million Jews were exterminated marking the greatest tragedy in the history of human rights and that is when the countries of the world recognized the need for an independent institution which would work to prevent such an atrocity from occurring again.  They established the United Nations (U.N.). United Nations was established to promote international peace and harmony and to protect human rights and freedom with many other basic human welfare objectives. A special committee was setup by the United Nations and given the responsibility to create a set of universally acceptable set of rights for global human community and that is how the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) came in to the picture. 

Today, Universal Declaration of Human Rights is considered as the most important development in the history of human rights.  Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a set of clear rules and guidelines that determines and provides a foundation for life, freedom, access to basic necessities, pursuit of happiness, and nationality. It clearly describes the importance of human rights and dignity and how it should be protected. The U.N. Commission on Human Rights produced two additional treaties intended to act as legally binding documents to enforce the UDHR: the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR). Together, these three documents are referred to as the International Bill of Human Rights.

Philosophy Human Rights

Human Rights help people live a free and dignified life. The philosophy of human rights examines the inherent concept of human rights and tries to give a critical explanation to it.  In simple words the philosophy of human rights addresses questions about the existence, content, nature, universality, justification, and legal status of human rights.  Several theoretical approaches have been advanced to explain how and why human rights have become a part of social expectations. 

  We have mentioned in the discussion of the history of human rights that according to the western philosophers’ human rights is the product of a natural law, stemming from different philosophical or religious grounds. 

  Some others believe that human rights are directly related to moral behavior of a man and it codifies the same. They believe these moral behaviors are the result of the biological and social evolution. 

  In the work of Max Weber it is found that human rights are sociological pattern of rule setting. According to this ideology human rights is a part of social contract where individuals in a society accept rules from legitimate authority in exchange for security and economic advantage.

  The two theories that dominate contemporary human rights discussion are the interest theory and the will theory. Interest theory argues that the principal function of human rights is to protect and promote certain essential human interests, while will theory attempts to establish the validity of human rights based on the unique human capacity for freedom.

Characteristics of Human Rights

Human rights are fundamental and are inherent to each individual. It covers the relationship between people and the nature, people and people, and people and society. The extension of the concept of human rights includes the basic rights of survival and development. As a social concept, it means national and sovereign rights of a country in certain sense. The nature of human rights has the following basic characteristics.

Universal 

Human rights are universal and this was first emphasized in a systematic manner in Universal Declaration on Human Rights in 1948. The Vienna World Conference on Human Rights in 1933 significantly mentioned that it is the duty of the state to protect and promote all human rights and fundamental freedoms, regardless of their political, economic and cultural systems. Human rights goes along with the progress of human society and has always been a universal concern of human beings in various historical periods.

Inalienable 

Human rights cannot be and should not be taken away. These rights are inalienable and should be enjoyed by a person throughout his life. However, there are certain exceptions to it.  For example, the right to liberty of a criminal may be restricted.

 Interdependent and indivisible 

Human rights are interdependent and closely connected to each other however these rights are indivisible or Human Rights are not capable of being divided. The improvement of one right facilitates advancement of the others. Likewise, the deprivation of one right adversely affects the others.  

Equal and non-discriminatory

Non-discrimination is a key principle in international human rights law. This principle is considered to be a central principle in all major human rigts treaties. Equality and Non-discrimination is complimentary to each other and it applies to everyone in relation to human rights. There should not be any discrimination on the grounds of caste, creed, sex, race, color etc. while enjoying human rights.  Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights stated that “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.”

Both Rights and Obligations 

Human rights are not simply rights, they are obligations as well.  It is the responsibility of a state to respect human rights and must refrain from interfering with or curtailing the enjoyment of human rights. This is required in order to protect individuals and groups against human rights abuses. These obligations include states responsibility to take required steps to make sure that basic human rights are being enjoyed by the all.

Classification of Human Rights

Human rights are set of international norms and it help to protect all people from political, legal, and social abuses. Every right serves a unique purpose in a man’s life. Some rights provide political safeguards and some other rights provide economic safeguards. Based on the nature of the rights these can be classified into following three categories: 

  Civil and political rights (also called first generation rights). These are "liberty-orientated" and include the rights to life, liberty and security of the individual; freedom from torture and slavery; political participation; freedom of opinion, expression, thought, conscience and religion; freedom of association and assembly. 

  Economic and social rights (also called second generation rights). These are "security-orientated" rights, for example the rights to work; education; a reasonable standard of living; food; shelter and health care.

  Environmental, cultural and developmental rights (also called third generation rights). These include the rights to live in an environment that is clean and protected from destruction, and rights to cultural, political and economic development.

Throughout much of history, it is observed that people acquired rights and responsibilities through their membership in a group – a family, indigenous nation, religion, class, community, or state. Therefore, human rights should be adopted and applied by all people and nations always in a responsible way and it should be made sure that no one’s right is abused or infringed. It order to do justice with the human rights it is always advisable to acquire the knowledge of the basic principles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. 

Importance of Human Rights Education

Violation of human rights is a burning issue in present day scenario. It is extremely important for all level of society to understand the meaning and importance of human rights in order bring global peace. Human rights are not just rules or set of laws, these rules are way of living a dignified and free life. In recent decades there has been a tremendous growth in how we think about and apply human rights ideas. This has had many positive results - knowledge about human rights can empower individuals and offer solutions for specific problems.   Human rights education is the teaching and learning of human rights principles and values as contained in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR).  Human rights education informs people of their rights, provides information about the international human rights system, and gives people the skills and attitudes that lead to the protection and support of human rights.  According to HREA the teaching of human rights in schools instills human rights values and knowledge in young people. Human rights education:

  Teaches about the history and current structures of the international human rights system, treaties and declarations;

  Creates awareness and fosters concern about human rights violations and the effects those violations have on people’s lives, from denial of free speech, to homelessness, to the oppression of women;

  Promotes understanding and practice of human rights values including respect for human dignity, non-violent conflict resolution, tolerance and multiculturalism;

  Encourages action in response to human rights violations internationally and in local communities.

Human rights education also teaches important academic and life skills and deepens students’ understanding of course material.  Knowledge and skills to be gained from human rights education include:

  Critical thinking, analyzing credibility and authenticity of cause-effect relationships, formulating analysis and asking questions; 

  Viewing an issue from multiple perspectives and identifying bias in your own and other’s opinions; and

  Research and data collection, use of statistics, reporting and monitoring techniques, and measuring human rights violations.

The realization of the human rights values of tolerance, equality and respect can can helps us create the kind of society we want to live in. 

What are human rights “Standards”?

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is considered to be the most important document in the field of Human rights. It is a set of basic rights and freedom of all men agreed to by the nations of the world on 10 December 1948. The UDHR, together with the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), its two Optional Protocols, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), form what is known as International Bill of Human Rights. It forms the basis of many legally binding national and international laws. Since the inception of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, human rights standards have been developed and incorporated into many international laws and treaties. Two of the most significant of these are the: 

 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights  

 International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Rights.

  Civil and political rights: These rights attempt to protect the individual from the misuse of political power and recognize a person's right to participate in their country's political process. They include freedom from slavery, torture and arbitrary arrest; freedom of thought, opinion and religion; the right to a fair trial and equality before the law. 

  Economic, social and cultural rights: These set of rights require a government to ensure that its people share in the economic wealth of the country, can participate in its social and cultural life, have access to adequate health care, education, social support and a clean environment and develop to their full potential. 

  International law has also developed to protect people from racial discrimination and recognize the rights of specific groups of people, such as women, children and people with a disability.

International human rights law lays down obligations which States are bound to respect. By becoming parties to international treaties, States assume obligations and duties under international law to respect, to protect and to fulfill human rights.

  The obligation to respect means that States must refrain from interfering with or curtailing the enjoyment of human rights.

  The obligation to protect requires States to protect individuals and groups against human rights abuses.

  The obligation to fulfill means that States must take positive action to facilitate the enjoyment of basic human rights.

Human Rights in the 21st Century

The history of human rights is the history of both positive and negative. The occurrence of great wars ruined the very essence of the fundamental right of a man to live. However, in the last 50 years the word has seen a number of great initiatives and developments in the field of human rights. The establishment of United Nations and initiation of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights together have change the history of human rights in a very positive direction. However it would be wrong to assume that we and our right secure in 21st century especially with the presence of the following factors. 

•  The mass destruction weapons are the most critical threat to the human rights. The danger from availability of mass-destruction weapons in many powerful hands of the multipolar world, such as nuclear and biological weapons , still exists

• Drug trafficking and abuse is still rampant. It is a major threat to human rights and the severity of drug trafficking related issues are serious danger to mankind.

• Ecological and environmental degradation is serious concern for all of us. The ecological environment is deteriorating. The direct result of the deteriorating environment is decrease of economy and human existence threatened. 
•  Achievements in microsurgery, biological engineering, outer space exploitation and the information industry make human rights issues more complicated.
• Poverty is still a serious threat in the 21st century.

• The existing world economic order is also becoming an obstacle in promotion of human rights.

• In international affairs, power politics and anti-human rights activities under the cover of maintaining human rights still hinders the protection of human rights.

Career in Human Rights

Work in human rights can be challenging and intense. The human rights career has a number of diverse options to choose from. It is a competitive field. The serious human rights violation cases in last two decades have raise the importance of the field to a great extent subsequently increasing the number of career options.  

•   Human Rights Activist
•   Human Rights Defender
•   Human Rights Analyst
•   Human Rights Professional
•   Human Rights Researcher
•   Human Rights Programmer
•   Human Rights Advocate
•   Human Rights Worker
•   Human Rights Teacher
•   Human Rights Consultant
•   Human Rights Campaigner
•   Human Rights Manager
•   Public Relation Officer

It must be mentioned here that whatever role a student is interested in or whatever is the qualification, getting into Human Rights work is highly competitive and challenging. A human rights job requires a high motivation and a high dedication for a cause. It is always advisable to have relevant experience in an area of human rights as per the interest. Normally this experienced is gained on a voluntary basis, through internships or other involvement with a human rights organization.

Among the top organizations involving in human rights issues are Amnesty International, CRY, Oxfam, Human Rights Watch, Commonwealth Human Rights Initiatives, Asian Centre for Human Rights, South Asian Human Rights Documentation Centre, PUCL, PUDR. Besides, there are a number of UN agencies working on the human rights issues.