Anthropology

Anthropology is the study of the past and present of the human kind. It is a broad study of human cultures throughout the world and throughout the history and prehistory.  It is also called as science of humanity.  The root of the subject is connected to humanities, social sciences and natural sciences. Anthropology observes humankind from a comparative perspective. It emphasizes on the diversity of human behavior and the importance of culture in explaining that diversity. Anthropology studies human beings as cultural animals. The discipline focuses on the biological nature of human beings and their adaptation with the environment for the fulfillment of material requirements and the cultural interpretation in the whole process. Socio-cultural anthropology draws its data from the direct study of contemporary peoples living in a wide variety of circumstances, from peasant villagers and tropical forest hunters and gatherers to urban populations in modern societies, as well as from the history and prehistory of those peoples.

Origin

The term anthropology is derived from the Greek words ‘Anthropos’ and ‘logia’. Anthropos means ‘man’ and logia means ‘discourse’ or ‘study’. Anthropology originated in the colonial encounter between Western people and colonized non-Western people, as Europeans tried to understand the origins of observable cultural diversity. Immanuel Kant is considered as the key contributor in the field of anthropology. His work “Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View” is known as one of the first, major and finest treatises on the field. It took Kant nearly 25 years to complete this work. Kant however did not cross the cultural and geographical area of Germany in his studies and this is why is not generally recognized as a modern anthropologist. 

Anthropology is a global discipline today. Anthropology studies all types of societies available in the globe. Famous Historians of anthropology like Marvin Harris identified two major frameworks within which empirical anthropology has arisen: 

• Interest in comparisons of people over space and 
• Interest in long term human processes or, humans as viewed through time.

Definitions

Many social scientists, anthropologist Institutes and associations tried to define the subject matter and nature of Anthropology in various ways. Some of the common definitions are mentioned below.

  “Anthropology seeks to uncover principles of behaviour that apply to all human communities. To an anthropologist, diversity itself-seen in body shapes and sizes, customs, clothing, speech, religion, and worldview-provides a frame of reference for understanding any single aspect of life in any given community.”- American Anthropological Association

  “Anthropologists attempt to answer the question: "how can one explain the diversity of human cultures that are currently found on earth and how have they evolved?" Given that we will have to change rather rapidly within the next generation or two this is a very pertinent question for anthropologists.”- Michael Scullin

  “Anthropology is the study of human diversity around the world. Anthropologists look at cross-cultural differences in social institutions, cultural beliefs, and communication styles. They often seek to promote understanding between groups by "translating" each culture to the other, for instance by spelling out common, taken-for-granted assumptions.”- University of North Texas

  “Anthropology is the study of people. In this discipline, people are considered in all their biological and cultural diversities, in the present as well as in the prehistoric past, and wherever people have existed. Students are introduced to the interaction between people and their environments to develop an appreciation of human adaptations past and present.”  - Portland Community College

  “Anthropology is the only discipline that can access evidence about the entire human experience on this planet.”- Michael Brian Schiffer

  "Anthropology is the most humanistic of the sciences and the most scientific of the humanities." -Eric Wolf

  "Anthropology is the only discipline that can access evidence about the entire human experience on this planet." -Michael Brian Schiffer

  "Anthropology provides a scientific basis for dealing with the crucial dilemma of the world today: how can peoples of different appearance, mutually unintelligible languages, and dissimilar ways of life get along peaceably together?" - Clyde Kluckhohn

Subject Matter of Anthropology

A prime focus of anthropologists is to find the solution of human problems with the application of knowledge. Historically, anthropologists in the United States have been trained in one of four areas: socio-cultural anthropology, biological/physical anthropology, archaeology, and linguistics. Anthropologists often integrate the perspectives of several of these areas into their research, teaching, and professional lives. To understand complexity of cultures across the globe and human history, anthropology draws and builds upon knowledge from the social and biological sciences as well as the humanities and physical sciences.

• Socio-cultural Anthropology

Socio-cultural anthropologists’ focus on how people live in particular places and how they organize, govern, and create meaning. It examines social patterns and practices across cultures. An important feature of socio-cultural anthropology is its concern with similarities and differences, both within and among societies, and its attention to race, sexuality, class, gender, and nationality. Research in socio-cultural anthropology is characterized by its stress on participant observation, which involves placing oneself in the research context for extended periods of time to gain a first-hand sense of how local knowledge is put to work in grappling with practical problems of everyday life and with basic philosophical problems of knowledge, truth, power, and justice. Topics of concern to socio-cultural anthropologists include such areas as health, work, ecology and environment, education, agriculture and development, and social change.

•  Biological (or Physical) Anthropology

Biological or physical anthropology is  centring around the physical and bio-cultural aspects of humans, including biological aspects of human health and well being; micro- and macro evolutionary study of the human condition; relationships to other primates; human growth and development; pathology, mortality and morbidity; and population genetics. Biological anthropologists tend to understand how humans adapt to diverse environments, how biological and cultural processes work together to shape growth, development and behaviour, and what causes disease and early death. 

•  Archaeology

Archaeologists study past peoples and cultures, from the deepest prehistory to the recent past, through the analysis of material remains, ranging from artefacts and evidence of past environments to architecture and landscapes. Material evidence, such as pottery, stone tools, animal bone, and remains of structures, is examined within the context of theoretical paradigms, to address such topics as the formation of social groupings, ideologies, subsistence patterns, and interaction with the environment. Like other areas of anthropology, archaeology is a comparative discipline; it assumes basic human continuities over time and place, but also recognizes that every society is the product of its own particular history and that within every society there are commonalities as well as variation.

•  Applied Anthropology: 

Applied anthropology is indulge in process of  information collected from other branches of anthropology and then uses this data in programmes like large scale initiatives for birth control, health treatment, reducing malnutrition, trying to curb juvenile delinquency, solving labour problems and worker protests in industries, improving agricultural practices, preventing tribal welfare and helping in tribal rehabilitation when their land is taken over or they are forcefully removed.

• Linguistic Anthropology

Linguistic anthropology is the comparative study of ways and methods in which language reflects and influences social life. Linguistic Anthropology explores the many ways in which language practices define patterns of communication, formulate categories of social identity and group membership, organize large-scale cultural beliefs and ideologies, and, in conjunction with other forms of meaning-making, equip people with common cultural representations of their natural and social worlds. Linguistic anthropology shares with anthropology in general a concern to understand power, inequality, and social change, particularly as these are constructed and represented through language and discourse.

All these subfields together  answers the complex questions, such as human origins, the past and contemporary spread and treatment of infectious disease, or globalization, requires synthesizing information from.. An engaged anthropology is committed to supporting social change efforts that arise from the interaction between community goals and anthropological research. Because the study of people, past and present, requires respect for the diversity of individuals, cultures, societies, and knowledge systems, anthropologists are expected to adhere to a strong code of professional ethics.

Characteristics of Anthropology

Anthropology as a discipline is unique. Some of the major characteristics of Anthropology are discussed below:

Study of humankind:  Anthropology is the study of humankind and it is the main characteristic of the subject. Anthropology unlike other disciplines explores the entire panorama of the human experience from human origins to contemporary forms of culture and social life. 

Comparative discipline: Anthropology is a generalizing and comparative discipline with a concern for understanding human diversity on a global scale.  Anthropologists engage in empirical research with established theories, methods, and analytical techniques.  They conduct field-based research as well as laboratory analyses and archival investigations.

Holistic: A great characteristics of Anthropology is its holistic perspective. It understands humankind in terms of the dynamic interrelationships of all aspects of human existence. Different aspects of culture and society exhibit patterned interrelationships. Anthropology is a whole approach. It looks at everything about people, studying people both culturally and physically. It is a general rather than a specialized approach.

 Self-reflexive: In recent decades Anthropology has become more self-reflexive and involved with communities and with social conflicts as anthropologists increasingly apply their findings to real world social issues and engage their subjects as colleagues and collaborators.

 Evolutionary – Anthropology is an evolutionary approach. It studies people during all time periods from the distant past through ancient civilizations to the present.

 Non-Western Emphasis – Anthropology doesn’t have any western emphasis. Anthropology studies and compares people all over the world with equal attention to the non-Western cultures and ethnic groups that other disciplines tend to de-emphasize.

Career in Anthropology

Anthropology has been considered as the most scientific of the humanities and most humanistic of the sciences. Typically the tasks of an anthropologist are extensively associated with field work and research. Anthropologists have multiple career options. Various government research institutes employ anthropologists’. Careers where this knowledge is in demand include social and market research, government and international development. The Anthropological Survey of India is a key player in recruiting anthropologist in India. There are many other important institutions that have to deal with technical aspects of human evolution and therefore require the service of anthropologists. To name them Planning Commission and Commission for Scheduled Castes, Other Backward Classes Commission, Minority Commission and Commission on Schedule Tribes. Anthropologists are also required by international agencies like WHO, UNESCO and UNICEF to conduct research activities. Other areas of employment include human resource departments of corporate houses and industries. Anthropologists are also employed in museums, art galleries, libraries and archives. They also can be employed as archaeologists, curators, linguists and social workers in media houses, publishing houses and NGOs. Anthropologists also find employment in forensic science departments and criminal investigation departments. Those who are interested in teaching may find several colleges and universities offering Anthropology as a subject. 

One can choose one of the following areas in anthropology to opt for magnificent career:

•   Socio-cultural Anthropology
•   Archaeology
•   Physical Anthropology
•   Linguistic Anthropology
•   Medical Anthropology
•   Forensic Anthropology
•   Business Anthropology
•   Visual Anthropology
•   Environmental Anthropology
•   Museum Anthropology 

A list of popular jobs roles in anthropology is mentioned below:

•   Educator
•   Researcher
•   NGO/Social Service Organizations.
•   Human resource Development
•   Museums
•   Art Galleries
•   Librarian and Archivist
•   Forensic
•   Archeologist
•   Curators
•   Social Worker
•   Forensic Science Department
•   Criminal Investigation Department
•   Publishing Houses
•   Linguistics

It is now clearly understood that Archeology as a discipline creates a number of career opportunities for its students. Anthropology isn’t exactly a well-known career but it can be one of the most rewarding and lucrative. With the growing importance of the subject in recent times has attracted many students towards it. Anthropology students are trained effectively in many skills like liberal arts skills–oral and written communication, interpersonal skills, problem-solving, research, and critical thinking–needed for success in a variety of careers.  These skills provide flexibility in career mobility, forming a foundation for life-long learning as employment possibilities are continually transformed.  American anthropologist Margaret Mead rightly pointed out: 

"Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful committed citizens can change the world; indeed, it's the only thing that ever has. As an anthropology graduate, you may be in a better position than many to be part of such an influential group.”